Once you find information on your topic, how do you know if it is reliable? It is easier to tell for material that appears in print. There is a general scale that you can use to determine this based on the producer of the information. The rules change quite a bit for online sources. For magazine articles located through an online database, use the rules for a print source to evaluate the quality of the publication that produced the article.

In general, you can rate the quality of printed information on the following scale:

Least Reliable Sources
Advertisements and newspapers devoted to gossip and fantasy
	Books published by vanity presses
		Raw data and historical manuscripts Books published by popular presses Daily newspapers
			Weekly newspapers and magazines
				Books published by small presses
					Monthly and quarterly journals and magazines Books published by reputable publishers
						University presses
							Professional journals Books published by professional associations
								Refereed journals Refereed books published by professional associations
								Most Reliable Sources

Using an advertisement or an article from the National Enquirer in a serious research paper is obviously a poor choice unless you are using the article as an example of a point rather than research. But some of the other entries on the scale may be a bit confusing. There are also exceptions to the rules.

Books Published by Vanity Presses

What are they? – Vanity presses are publishers who will publish anything that the author will pay for.

Reliability issues – There is no editorial review process beyond, perhaps, spell checking.

How can you identify one? – It can be difficult to realize that a book is produced by a vanity press, but the use of non-standard English and frequent typographical errors are clues.

Raw Data and Historical Manuscripts

What are they? – Raw data are the numbers generated by experiments or collected by researchers on a variety of subjects. Historical manuscripts are firsthand accounts of events, such as diaries. Another name for this type of material is a "primary source."

Reliability issues – The reliability of the data in this category depends a lot on the expertise of the reader in the subject. You need to ask yourself if you have the knowledge needed to interpret survey results or production figures on your own. Do you have the expertise on the subject to know when a diary is telling the truth? Do you know the motives behind a biography or account of an event to discern truth from fiction? If you do and you can prove your knowledge, then this type of source can be useful.

How can you identify one? – This type of information does not try to explain itself. It is not analyzed or critiqued. Charts and tables of production data produced by a US Government agency are raw data. A book on economic theory that cites those charts is not. The journal of a soldier at the Alamo is this type of material. A book on the Alamo that quotes the journal is not.

Books Published by Popular Presses

What are they? – Popular press books are marketed to the general public and are designed to sell a lot of copies. A prime example would be a book written by a reporter, such as a war correspondent who writes a book about the war in Iraq. Most "self help", works of fiction, and children's books fall into this category. Another category consists of coffee table books.

Reliability issues – The main focus here is sales. Authors may be knowledgeable, but they are probably not academically oriented. The level of research may not be the best. They may treat their subjects superficially .

How can you identify one? – There are a lot of flashy pictures designed for browsing, but the accompanying text doesn’t have much substance. A second type of book in this category covers a significant event that appears literally days after the event occurred. Look at the information about the author on the back cover of the book to see their credentials. If the book is in the category of "self help", fiction, children's, or coffee table books, the odds are pretty good.

Daily Newspapers

What are they? – Newspapers that are published every day

Reliability issues – One problem with this source is simply the time pressure on the reporter to produce the article. News on current events has less than a 24 hour deadline. This doesn’t provide much time to carefully check a story’s facts. You may also find that the quality of reporting in general is not very high in many local newspapers that have a small circulation. Local newspapers may be the only source available for information on local concerns. The issue of drilling for methane in the Mat-Su valley received quite a bit of coverage in the Frontiersman and the Anchorage Daily News. But the farther away from a local issue that a publication is, the less inclined an editor will be to run a story unless there it is a very slow news day.

How can you identify one? – Look at the publication frequency. You may be able to find this in the information about the newspaper that is usually printed on about page A2. In an online database, enter the name of the paper as a source and look at the frequency of the published articles. In WorldCat, search for the newspaper by title and look in the record for the frequency of publication.

Weekly Newspapers and Magazines

What are they? – Magazines or newspapers that are published once a week.

Reliability issues – Deadlines are a problem with this type of publication as well. There is more time to check facts, but the level of reporting is still going to be fairly low. Think about the layout of Time Magazine. There are lots of dramatic photos, but articles tend to be fairly short and without much substance. Time provides an overview of the news rather than an analysis of any issue. The issues where analysis is provided generally fall into the category of “editorials”. These provide an editor, reporter, or reader an opportunity to give their viewpoint without the need to cite sources. Editorials are poor sources for research.

How can you identify one? – Look at the publication frequency. Magazines generally list their publication frequency in small print somewhere near the end of the table of contents. You may be able to find this in the information about the newspaper that is usually printed on about page A2. In an online database, enter the name of the magazine or newspaper as a source and look at the frequency of the published articles. In WorldCat, search for the source by title and look in the record for the frequency of publication.

Books Published by Small Presses

What are they? – Publishers who are selective about what they publish, but do not generally expect large volume sales. These publisher often focuses on subjects of local interest, or restricts their publications to a certain subject area. They may be your best sources for that type of information.

Reliability issues – There is more control over quality than at a vanity press. Authors tend to be knowledgeable on their topic, but may not be experts or have training in research methods. The author does not pay the publisher to print the book. In a way, the reliability issues are the same as those for a popular press, but there is more knowledge among the readership. In the case of a local history, many people who read the book may have some connection to it. In the case of a publisher that confines itself to a specific topic, its readership consists of interested persons who probably already know something about the topic even though they may not be experts. The publisher knows that it cannot consistently publish material that its core readership deems worthless and remain in business.

How can you identify one? – This can be tough. Look for the level of local interest or topic specificity in books that are not published by university presses. Illustrations may be hand drawn or of lesser quality than you would expect from a larger publisher.

Monthly and Quarterly Journals and Magazines

What are they? – Monthly journals and magazines are published 12 times a year. Quarterly journals and magazines are published 4 times a year. Some publications of this type may combine issues so that the actual frequency of publication is less than it should be.

Reliability issues – At this level, there is sufficient time to check sources. There is a difference between monthly magazines that are meant to entertain and those that are meant to inform. The higher quality magazines and journals will rely less on visual appeal to catch a reader’s attention.

How can you identify one? – Look at the publication frequency. Magazines generally list their publication frequency in small print somewhere near the end of the table of contents. In an online database, enter the name of the magazine or newspaper as a source and look at the frequency of the published articles. In WorldCat, search for the source by title and look in the record for the frequency of publication.

Books Published by Reputable Publishers

What are they? – Publishers in this category are generally large organizations that have the resources to be highly selective about which books they will publish.

Reliability issues – Authors published by reputable publishers have generally published at least one book before and have developed at least some reputation for their subject knowledge. They may or may not be subject experts, but the do know how to research a topic. The publisher will try to stay away from material of questionable validity because it does not want to lose its reputation for quality.

How can you identify one? – This is a hard one unless you know a bit about the publishing industry, but books will tend to have a more scholarly focus. In practice, this means that the vocabulary is usually above high school level, the writing style may be dry, presentation is rarely flashy, and the book is probably expensive. It is easy to confuse reputable publishers and small presses because they can have similar subject-oriented interests. Kluwer, Springer, and Praeger are three examples of this category. Note that each one bills itself as an "academic publisher".

University Presses

What are they? – University presses are publishers who are associated with a specific university.

Reliability issues – The goal of a university press is to publish academic works. Authors are usually professors, so they have quite a bit of knowledge on their topic and have a great deal of experience with research. They are also likely to produce works of local history or scientific interest. The reputation of a university press is frequently tied to the reputation of its parent institution.

How can you identify one? – Unlike the previous category, this one is a dead giveaway. Look for the words "university" and "press" in the publisher's name. "University press" may be abbreviated as "u p" or "u of <institution name> p"

Professional Journals and Books Published by Professional Associations

What are they? – Books or journals published by a professional society. A professional society is an organization to which the practitioners of an occupation belong simply because they share the professional interests of the society's members. The society usually hosts an annual conference for its membership. Examples are the American Psychological Association, American Medical Association, and the Modern Language Association.

Reliability issues – Items in this category are published for persons who work in the field for which the journal or books was written. The audience already has knowledge of the topic, and a publisher of information in the field cannot afford to gain a poor reputation among its readership. One problem with books and articles in this category is the fact that it is written for practitioners in the field-people who know the subjects jargon. Some professional societies do publish material for the general public as well, but it is pretty easy to spot that based on the writing style used in the publication. That type of publication will have the look of a popular press item, but it still has the reputation of the professional organization behind it.

How can you identify one? – The material is often technical in nature and can be difficult for a layman to understand. Like material published by a reputable publisher, it will probably be dry, dull, and expensive because its purpose is to inform rather than entertain. Look for "association", "organization", or "society" in the publisher's name. This is not a guarantee, since many non-profit organizations share this trait. You will need to evaluate the fundamental purpose of the parent organization. If it is devoted to anything other than a specific occupation, you are dealing with something else. For example, look at the difference between the American Society of Anesthesiologists and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. While both organizations cater to groups of like-minded individuals, the first is devoted to an occupation, while the second focuses on an issue.

Refereed Journals and Books

What are they? – This is a sub-set of the previouis category. A refereed journal or book is one that has an editorial board of experts in the field who certify that the content of the journal article or book is worthy of publication. The idea is to publish the best of the best writing on the subject.

Reliability issues – A collection of experts who practice in the field on which the item was written are certifying that the item is worthy of publication for a readership who are also practitioners in the field. An article with fabricated data may be published from time to time, but the author's career will be ruined when it is discovered.

How can you identify one? – Look near the table of contents for information about the magazine. It should name the members of the editorial board. Most online databases have an option to limit results to peer reviewed journals.

Within any of the above categories of publishers, there is a range of quality, so it may be useful to apply the following evaluation method for online sources to your print material as well.

Evaluating Online Sources (The 5 Ws)

Evaluating an online source takes a little more work because of the ease with which information can be produced. You have to do a bit of research on your research. It helps to ask the following questions:

Who produced the site? Is the author clearly identified? What is his or her expertise on the subject (would you take medical advice from a physicist)? Can you verify their expertise from a source outside of the website where you located the information? Is that source reliable? Does the author provide contact information?

What information is presented? Do they cite their sources? How thoroughly is their subject covered? Is the information current? If the author provides links to other sites, are they high quality sites? Does a person or organization with expertise on the subject recommend the site?

When was the page last updated? This question actually has two facets:

Is someone currently managing the site? Are they attempting to keep the information on the pages you want to use up to date?

How quickly will the information you need become obsolete? Information on a topic such as computer science becomes dated very quickly. Information that is more than five years old probably worthless. History, on the other hand, is not so time conscious. A fifty year old article can still be valuable.

Where is the site located? The domain in which a site resides can tell you a lot about the quality of information that you are likely to find. Remember our list of common domain names:

.com – A commercial site. This type of site will be selling a product, and the information that it provides will be oriented toward that sale. Sometimes a .com will have some useful information, but it is usually shallow. It is better to try to find another source unless you are looking for product specifications or some similar item.

.edu – A college or university in the United States. Sometimes you can locate research studies produced by a university’s faculty members or subject bibliographies. Be wary of student produced pages, though. Typically, you can identify a student’s personal web page by looking for an address that looks like www.nameoftheuniversity.edu/~nameofstudent. The “~” is used to denote personal pages, so a faculty member’s personal page may use it as well.

Universities almost always list their faculty members, so they can be a valuable tool for verifying a source’s expertise on the subject of your research.

.gov – A United States government agency. These sites contain some of the best sources for statistics.

.mil – United States military.

.net – An Internet service provider. Internet service providers also host sites, so you will see encounter a variety of personal and business web pages in this domain. Be careful.

.org – A nonprofit organization. Nonprofit organizations also require careful scrutiny. While some are entities such as research hospitals, others are highly political in nature. They may not be selling a product, but they are selling an idea.

.us – This domain is frequently used by state agencies. Public schools also use this domain and frequently post student work on it. Be careful that you are not citing a high school student’s paper if you choose to use information from this domain.

Why was the site produced? Are the creators of the site selling a product or an idea? That is the primary goal of sites located in the .com domain and it is frequently the purpose of sites on the .org domain.

Motive is an important consideration when you evaluate any information, but it is especially pertinent to political nonprofit organizations. They have no interest in presenting a balanced argument on their topic, and some have been known to embellish (even invent) their “facts”. Just think of them as advertisements for a cause and use them to identify potential research that you will verify with other sources.

Some sites are produced simply because an author wants to spread a message that no reputable publisher would print.

It pays to be skeptical of any information that you find on the Internet because it is easily faked.